Class 10 – Historiography: Development in the West (Maharashtra Board)

Class 10 – History & Political Science

Chapter 1: Historiography – Development in the West

1 20 Important Words & Meanings (meanings in Hindi only)

  • Historiography – इतिहास लेखन की पद्धति
  • Empirical – अनुभव/प्रयोग पर आधारित
  • Hypothesis – परिकल्पना/अनुमान
  • Narrative – घटनाक्रम का वर्णन
  • Archaeology – पुरातत्त्व विद्या
  • Epigraphy – शिलालेखों का अध्ययन
  • Numismatics – सिक्कों का अध्ययन
  • Manuscriptology – पांडुलिपि अध्ययन
  • Genealogy – वंशावली अध्ययन
  • Chronology – कालानुक्रम/घटनाओं का क्रम
  • Objectivity – निष्पक्षता
  • Authenticity – प्रामाणिकता
  • Dialectics – विलोम पक्षों से तर्क-पद्धति
  • Thesis – मूल सिद्धांत/मत
  • Antithesis – विरोधी सिद्धांत/मत
  • Synthesis – समन्वय/संश्लेषण
  • Class Struggle – वर्ग संघर्ष
  • Feminism – नारीवादी विचारधारा
  • Evidence – प्रमाण/साबिती
  • Archaeology of Knowledge – ज्ञान की “पुरातत्त्व” पद्धति

2 Important Notes for Quick Revision

  • Historiography = critical writing of history; a historian selects, interprets and narrates events within a conceptual framework.
  • Natural/physical sciences use laboratory experiments; in history we rely on sources, authentication, comparison and reasoned inference.
  • Auxiliary disciplines: Archaeology, Epigraphy, Numismatics, Linguistics, Manuscriptology, Genealogy, analysis of lettering, archival science.
  • Ancient communities preserved memory via cave paintings, songs, ballads and storytelling—now treated as historical sources.
  • Modern historiography (4 traits): (1) Scientific questioning, (2) Anthropocentric focus, (3) Evidence-based answers, (4) Traces humankind’s journey.
  • Greek roots: the term History is Greek; Herodotus used it in The Histories.
  • 18th c. Europe: shift to objectivity; Göttingen University (1737) had the first independent History department.
  • Descartes: verify documents; accept nothing true until doubt is excluded (Discourse on the Method).
  • Voltaire: broaden scope—society, economy, agriculture, trade; often called founder of modern historiography.
  • Hegel: logical presentation, progress over time; introduced method of Dialectics—Thesis ⇄ Antithesis ⇢ Synthesis.
  • Leopold von Ranke: critical method; primacy of original documents; criticised imaginative narration.
  • Karl Marx: history as class struggle arising from ownership of means of production (Das Kapital).
  • Annales School (France): included climate, geography, technology, demography, mentalities—beyond kings/wars.
  • Feminist historiography: re-reads history from women’s perspective; institutions, labour, family, unions.
  • Michel Foucault: priority to explaining transitions over linear chronology—“Archaeology of Knowledge”.
  • Historical research cycle: questions → collect sources → authenticate → compare → form hypotheses → write narrative.
  • Evidence authentication factors: script/style, author’s hand, date/paper type, stamps/seals, corroboration.
  • History cannot make universal time-space laws; instead it builds contextual explanations backed by sources.
  • Outcome: Historiography’s scope keeps expanding—literature, art, music, cinema, medicine, prisons, etc.

3 20 Most Important One-word Answer Type Questions

Q1. Who is called the ‘Father of History’?
Herodotus.

Q2. Who authored The Histories?
Herodotus.

Q3. Which university first had an independent History department (1737 C.E.)?
Göttingen University, Germany.

Q4. Who insisted on rigorous verification of documents?
René Descartes.

Q5. Who is regarded as the founder of modern historiography?
Voltaire.

Q6. Who wrote Reason in History?
G. W. F. Hegel.

Q7. Who championed original documents and the critical method?
Leopold von Ranke.

Q8. Which book is central to Marxist economic history?
Das Kapital.

Q9. Which French school broadened history’s scope beyond politics and wars?
The Annales School.

Q10. Who wrote Archaeology of Knowledge?
Michel Foucault.

Q11. What is the method based on opposites called?
Dialectics.

Q12. What are the three stages in dialectics?
Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis.

Q13. Which civilisation’s early inscriptions are noted in the chapter?
Sumer civilisation (Mesopotamia).

Q14. Around which year does the earliest inscription mentioned here date?
Circa 4500 B.C.E. (as stated in the text).

Q15. Study of inscriptions is called?
Epigraphy.

Q16. Study of coins is called?
Numismatics.

Q17. Study of lineage is called?
Genealogy.

Q18. Which thinker broadened history to social/economic life?
Voltaire.

Q19. Which historian rejected purely chronological arrangement?
Michel Foucault.

Q20. Which book compiles Ranke’s method and essays?
The Theory and Practice of History (and The Secret of World History).

4 20 Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. What does historiography mean?
The method and writing of critical, source-based history.

Q2. Why can’t history use lab experiments like physics?
Past events can’t be recreated; historians rely on sources and corroboration.

Q3. List two traditional means of preserving memory in ancient societies.
Cave paintings; storytelling/ballads.

Q4. Name any three auxiliary disciplines for history.
Archaeology, Epigraphy, Numismatics (also Linguistics, Manuscriptology).

Q5. What is meant by ‘anthropocentric’ questions?
Questions centred on human societies’ deeds and experiences.

Q6. What was Descartes’ key research rule?
Accept nothing as true until grounds of doubt are excluded.

Q7. What did Voltaire add to historiography?
Focus on society, economy, agriculture, trade—not just events.

Q8. What is Hegel’s view of historical timeline?
It signifies progress and should be presented logically.

Q9. What did Ranke emphasise while researching?
Original documents and strict critical examination.

Q10. What is Marx’s central idea about history?
History is the story of class struggle over means of production.

Q11. What broad areas did the Annales School include?
Climate, agriculture, trade, technology, demography, mentalities.

Q12. What is feminist historiography?
Rewriting history from women’s perspective and experiences.

Q13. What shift did Foucault propose?
Explain transitions/ruptures rather than only linear chronology.

Q14. Give two criteria to test a document’s authenticity.
Hand/lettering style; date/paper/seal; author’s style; stamps.

Q15. What is a hypothesis in history?
A tentative, source-grounded explanation to be tested by evidence.

Q16. Which language does the word ‘History’ come from?
Greek.

Q17. Name one of Ranke’s compilations.
The Theory and Practice of History.

Q18. What is the aim of historical narrative?
To present a reasoned account linking events, causes and contexts.

Q19. Why is complete objectivity difficult in history?
Selection/interpretation depend on frameworks, though evidence guides it.

Q20. Name two fields Foucault brought into historical analysis.
Medicine/psychiatry; prison administration (and knowledge systems).

5 20 Short Answer Type Questions (about 2–3 lines each)

Q1. State the four characteristics of modern historiography.
It begins with scientific questioning; questions are anthropocentric; answers rest on reliable evidence; and it traces humanity’s journey through past human deeds.

Q2. How do natural sciences differ from history in method?
Sciences test laws via repeatable lab experiments; history can’t recreate events, so it authenticates sources and builds contextual explanations.

Q3. Explain the role of auxiliary disciplines in history.
They supply specialised tools—inscriptions, coins, language, manuscripts and archaeological finds—to corroborate and date evidence.

Q4. Outline the basic cycle of historical research.
Frame questions → gather and authenticate sources → compare contexts → form hypotheses → write a critical narrative.

Q5. What is Descartes’ contribution to research method?
He demanded rigorous doubt and verification, shaping critical source analysis in history.

Q6. Why is Voltaire seen as founder of modern historiography?
He integrated society, economy and culture with events, enlarging the historian’s field beyond rulers and wars.

Q7. Summarise Hegel’s dialectical method.
Understanding arises through opposites—Thesis vs Antithesis—resolved at a higher level as Synthesis; thus history advances logically.

Q8. What was Ranke opposed to in history writing?
Imaginative narration; he insisted on original documents and meticulous criticism to reach historical truth.

Q9. State Marx’s view on class and production.
Control over means of production creates unequal classes; exploitation leads to class struggle that shapes history.

Q10. What new directions did the Annales School give?
It prioritised long-term structures—environment, economy, everyday life and collective psychology—besides political events.

Q11. Define feminist historiography with focus areas.
It re-reads history from women’s standpoint, studying work, unions, institutions, and family life.

Q12. Describe Foucault’s “archaeology of knowledge”.
A method to map discontinuities and transitions in knowledge systems, rather than just a neat chronology.

Q13. Why is authentication of sources essential?
To ensure reliability—checking script, authorship, date, material and seals protects against forgeries or errors.

Q14. What are anthropocentric questions in history?
They examine human actions, motives and institutions in a given time-space—excluding divine causation.

Q15. How do chronology and interpretation work together?
Chronology orders events; interpretation explains causation and connections within a coherent narrative.

Q16. What is the Greek connection of the term ‘History’?
The word is Greek; Herodotus used it as the title of his work The Histories.

Q17. How did universities change in the 18th century?
They shifted from purely divine studies to scientific/objective history—Göttingen (1737) led with a dedicated History department.

Q18. Which non-political fields later entered historiography?
Literature, arts, music, dance, drama, film, television, medicine, prisons and more.

Q19. Why can’t universal laws be framed in history?
Human events are contingent on time-space contexts; they resist timeless, repeatable laws.

Q20. What does a historian actually “do” with sources?
Collects, authenticates, compares, asks focused questions and then writes a defensible, evidence-based narrative.

6 Textbook Exercise – Questions & Perfect Answers

Q1(A)(1). It may be said that ________ was the founder of modern historiography.
Voltaire.

Q1(A)(2). ________ wrote the book entitled Archaeology of Knowledge.
Michel Foucault.

Q1(B). Identify and write the wrong pair in the following set:
(1) G. W. F. Hegel – Reason in History ✓
(2) Leopold von Ranke – The Theory and Practice of History ✓
(3) Herodotus – The Histories ✓
(4) Karl Marx – Discourse on the Method ✗ (Wrong pair; Discourse on the Method was by René Descartes.)

Q4. Complete the concept chart: “Notable Scholars in Europe”.
• René Descartes — Critical verification; Discourse on the Method.
• Voltaire — Founder of modern historiography; society–economy focus.
• G. W. F. Hegel — Logical history; Reason in History; dialectics.
• Leopold von Ranke — Original documents; Theory & Practice of History.
• Karl Marx — Class theory; Das Kapital.
• Annales School (French historians) — Climate, economy, mentalities.
• Michel Foucault — Transitions/ruptures; Archaeology of Knowledge.
• Herodotus — Greek pioneer; The Histories.

Q2(1). Write a short note on Dialectics.
Dialectics (notably in Hegel) is a logical method where understanding develops through opposites: a Thesis (a proposition) encounters its Antithesis, and their conflict is resolved at a higher level as Synthesis. This frames change and progress in history.

Q2(2). Write a short note on the Annales School.
The Annales School (France, 20th c.) reoriented history toward long-term structures—climate, geography, agriculture, trade, technology, demography and collective psychology—moving beyond event-centred political narratives of kings, diplomacy and wars.

Q3(1). Explain with reason: Historical research was driven to focus in depth on various aspects of women’s life.
Feminist historiography highlighted that traditional narratives marginalised women. To correct this, historians examined women’s employment, participation in unions/institutions, family roles and lived experiences—thereby rebuilding a more complete history.

Q3(2). Explain with reason: Foucault called his method ‘the archaeology of knowledge’.
Foucault aimed to uncover layers and ruptures in knowledge systems rather than simply arranging events chronologically. Like archaeology, his method excavates formations and transitions that explain how ideas and practices change over time.

Q5(1). Explain Karl Marx’s ‘Class Theory’.
Marx argued that society is divided by ownership of the means of production. Those who control production exploit other classes, generating class struggle. This conflict—rooted in material life—drives historical change; hence, human history is the history of class struggles (Das Kapital).

Q5(2). What are the four characteristics of modern historiography?
It (i) starts with relevant, scientific questions; (ii) focuses on humans and their societies (anthropocentric); (iii) depends on reliable, critically examined evidence; and (iv) presents humanity’s journey by analysing past human deeds.

Q5(3). What is feminist historiography?
It is the reinterpretation and restructuring of history from women’s perspective—questioning male-dominated narratives and foregrounding women’s work, institutions, roles in family and society, thereby expanding the historical canvas.

Q5(4). Explain Leopold von Ranke’s perspective of history.
Ranke asserted that historical truth is best approached through original documents, examined with utmost care. He rejected imaginative storytelling and promoted a rigorous, source-based critical method—laying foundations for scientific history writing.

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