• Plant transport: Xylem → water/minerals upward (root pressure at night; transpiration pull via stomata by day). Phloem → bidirectional translocation of sucrose/other solutes using energy (ATP).
• Root pressure: Osmotic uptake in root surface cells makes them turgid → pushes xylem sap upwards (effective in herbs/shrubs).
• Transpiration pull: Evaporation lowers water potential in leaves; cohesion-tension pulls continuous water column up the xylem.
• Translocation (phloem): Loading of sucrose lowers water potential → water entry → pressure flow from source (leaf/storage) to sink (growing/ storage organs).
• Plant excretion: No special organ; gases by diffusion; wastes stored in vacuoles, bark, leaves/flowers/fruits (later shed); resins/gums in old xylem; raphides (Ca-oxalate) can irritate skin.
• Human excretion: Kidneys (nephrons) filter blood; useful solutes/water reabsorbed; urine (≈1–1.9 L/day) passes ureter → bladder → urethra. Skin (sweat) & lungs (CO₂, H₂O) aid excretion.
• Dialysis: When kidneys fail, a dialyzer removes nitrogenous wastes; ~500 mL blood processed per cycle, cleaned blood returned.
• Co-ordination: Ensures timing, order and balance of processes to maintain homeostasis; done by nervous (fast, short-lived) and endocrine (slow, long-lasting) systems.
• Plant co-ordination: Tropic movements—photo (shoots), gravi/hydro (roots), chemo (pollen tube). Touch responses (Mimosa), insectivory (Venus flytrap, Drosera) via rapid water shifts/ion flux.
• Human nervous system: CNS (brain + spinal cord), PNS (cranial 12 pairs, spinal 31 pairs), ANS (involuntary organs). Neurons carry impulses via dendrite → soma → axon → synapse.
• Brain functions: Cerebrum—thinking, memory, voluntary control; Cerebellum—balance & coordination; Medulla—vital centres (heart beat, breathing, coughing, swallowing).
• Reflex action: Rapid, involuntary response mediated by spinal cord (reflex arc: receptor → sensory → interneuron → motor → effector).
• Endocrine glands & key hormones: Pituitary (GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH/LH, ADH, oxytocin), Thyroid (thyroxine, calcitonin), Parathyroid (PTH), Pancreas (insulin, glucagon), Adrenals (adrenaline, corticosteroids), Gonads (oestrogen/progesterone; testosterone), Thymus (thymosin).

1) Tissue carrying water in plants?

Xylem—conducts water and minerals upward.

2) Tissue carrying food in plants?

Phloem—translocates sucrose bidirectionally.

3) Define root pressure.

Positive pressure in roots pushing xylem sap upward.

4) Define transpiration.

Loss of water vapour via stomata in leaves.

5) Name the plant pores controlling transpiration.

Stomata (guard cells regulate opening/closing).

6) What is translocation?

Pressure-flow movement of food/solutes through phloem.

7) Structural unit of kidney?

Nephron—the filtration and reabsorption unit.

8) Filtration tuft in nephron?

Glomerulus within Bowman’s capsule.

9) Normal urine/day in a healthy adult?

About 1 to 1.9 litres per day.

10) What is dialysis?

Artificial removal of nitrogenous wastes from blood.

11) Define homeostasis.

Maintenance of internal balance (e.g., temperature, water, ions).

12) Phototropism meaning?

Growth response towards light (shoot shows positive).

13) Hydrotropism meaning?

Growth towards water (roots).

14) Functional unit of nervous system?

Neuron (nerve cell).

15) Site of vital centres like breathing?

Medulla oblongata.

16) Balance/coordination centre?

Cerebellum.

17) Largest part of human brain?

Cerebrum (~two-thirds of brain volume).

18) Reflex arc is mediated primarily by?

Spinal cord (with interneurons).

19) Hormone lowering blood glucose?

Insulin (pancreatic β-cells).

20) Hormone for “fight or flight”?

Adrenaline (from adrenal medulla).

1) Why is root pressure more effective at night?

Stomata close; transpiration low; osmotic water uptake dominates.

2) How does transpiration help in mineral transport?

Pulls continuous water column, carrying dissolved minerals upward.

3) What is the role of ATP in phloem loading?

Active transport of sucrose into sieve elements needs ATP.

4) Name two plant wastes useful to humans.

Gum and resin; latex (rubber) is also valuable.

5) Where are raphides stored and what are they?

Calcium oxalate crystals in plant tissues; needle-like, irritant.

6) State the path of urine flow.

Kidney → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra.

7) Approx. number of nephrons per kidney?

~10 lakh (≈ 1 million) per kidney.

8) Which two organs besides kidneys help excretion?

Lungs (CO₂, H₂O) and skin (sweat).

9) Define synapse.

Tiny gap where neurotransmitters carry signal between neurons.

10) Which nerves connect CNS to body?

Peripheral nerves—cranial (12 pairs) and spinal (31 pairs).

11) What are sensory neurons?

Carry impulses from receptors to CNS.

12) What are motor neurons?

Carry impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands).

13) What is a reflex?

Rapid, automatic response to a stimulus.

14) Name the fluid protecting CNS.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

15) State one role of pituitary gland.

Secretes trophic hormones (e.g., TSH, ACTH), growth hormone.

16) Which hormone regulates calcium rise in blood?

Parathormone (PTH) from parathyroid.

17) Which hormone lowers blood calcium?

Calcitonin (from thyroid).

18) Name the hormone for water balance.

ADH (antidiuretic hormone) from posterior pituitary.

19) Which plant hormone promotes cell elongation?

Auxin.

20) Why do infants lack control on urination?

Neural control of bladder is not yet fully developed.

1) Explain the cohesion-tension mechanism briefly.

Water molecules cohere; evaporation in leaves creates negative pressure; tension pulls the continuous water column up xylem.

2) How do guard cells open stomata?

Ion uptake increases osmotic potential; water enters; cells become turgid; stomatal pore opens.

3) Why is translocation considered pressure flow?

Sugar loading raises turgor at source; unloading lowers at sink; pressure gradient drives flow in sieve tubes.

4) Distinguish excretion in plants vs humans.

Plants: diffuse/storage, no organs; Humans: specialized kidneys, controlled urine formation.

5) Describe filtration in the nephron.

At glomerulus, small solutes/water cross into Bowman’s capsule; cells/proteins retained.

6) What is selective reabsorption?

Useful substances (glucose, amino acids, water, ions) are reclaimed in tubules/loop/collecting duct.

7) Why does urine output drop in summer?

More water lost via sweating; ADH rises; kidneys conserve water → less urine.

8) State three roles of cerebrum.

Voluntary control, memory/learning, reasoning/decision-making.

9) Why does alcohol affect balance?

It depresses cerebellar function, impairing coordination.

10) Outline a reflex arc with example.

Receptor (skin) → sensory neuron → spinal interneuron → motor neuron → effector (muscle); e.g., hand withdrawal from hot object.

11) How do plants show thigmotropism?

Tendrils touch support; differential growth on sides causes coiling around support.

12) Give one example of chemotropism in plants.

Pollen tube grows towards ovule due to chemical signals.

13) How do endocrine and nervous systems differ?

Nervous: fast, electrical, short-lived; Endocrine: slow, chemical, long-lasting.

14) Explain insulin–glucagon balance.

Insulin lowers blood glucose (uptake/storage); glucagon raises it (glycogenolysis).

15) Name two adrenal functions.

Adrenaline for emergency response; corticosteroids for Na⁺/K⁺ balance and metabolism.

16) What is the role of thymus?

Thymosin regulates immune T-cell maturation/function.

17) Why do leaves/flowers/fruit drop help plant excretion?

Wastes stored in these parts leave the plant when they shed.

18) Write one function each: cerebellum, medulla.

Cerebellum—balance/coordination; Medulla—controls vital reflexes (breathing, heartbeat).

19) State two differences: sensory vs motor neuron.

Direction (receptor→CNS vs CNS→effector); function (carry input vs execute response).

20) Mention two plant hormones and roles.

Gibberellins—stem elongation; Cytokinins—cell division & delay senescence.

1) Match the pairs and explain.

1) Growth of pollen tube towards ovule → b. Chemotropic movement
2) Growth of shoot system → c. Phototropic movement
3) Growth of root system → a. Gravitropic movement
4) Growth towards water → e. Hydrotropic movement

2) Complete the paragraph (fill-ins).

This activity was controlled by nerve cells. Special ends of dendrite in these cells collected the information, from where it was transferred to the cell body and then towards the terminal end of the axon. The chemicals produced at the terminal end passed through the minute space i.e. synapse. In this way, impulses were conducted in the body and the process of reflex action was completed by conducting the impulses from nerve to muscle cell.

3) Write notes on: Root pressure, Transpiration, Nerve cell, Human brain, Reflex action.

Root pressure: Positive pressure generated by osmotic water entry in roots pushing xylem sap upward, significant at night/low transpiration.
Transpiration: Vapour loss via stomata; aids cooling, mineral transport, and creates transpiration pull.
Nerve cell: Structural/functional unit of nervous system; conducts impulses dendrite→soma→axon; communicates via synapses.
Human brain: Cerebrum (thinking, voluntary acts), Cerebellum (balance/coordination), Medulla (vital reflexes); protected by skull, meninges, CSF.
Reflex action: Rapid involuntary response mediated by spinal reflex arc for protection and speed.

4) Name the hormones of glands & one function each.

Pituitary: GH (growth), TSH (stimulates thyroid), ACTH (adrenal cortex), FSH/LH (gonads), ADH (water balance), Oxytocin (uterine contraction).
Thyroid: Thyroxine (metabolism, growth), Calcitonin (↓ blood Ca²⁺).
Adrenal: Adrenaline (emergency response), Corticosteroids (Na⁺/K⁺ balance, metabolism).
Thymus: Thymosin (T-cell maturation).
Testis: Testosterone (male secondary sexual characters).
Ovary: Oestrogen (female secondary traits), Progesterone (maintains pregnancy).

5) Draw & label: Endocrine glands, Human brain, Nephron, Nerve cell, Human excretory system.

Use textbook outlines to label correctly: positions and key parts (e.g., pituitary/thyroid/adrenals; cerebrum/cerebellum/medulla; nephron with glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, PCT, loop of Henle, DCT, collecting duct; neuron labels; kidney–ureter–bladder–urethra).

6a) Explain chemical co-ordination in humans; name hormones & functions.

Endocrine glands release hormones into blood for slow, long-lasting control: insulin/glucagon (glucose balance), thyroxine (metabolic rate), ADH (water balance), adrenaline (emergency), GH (growth), sex hormones (reproduction), PTH/calcitonin (calcium balance).

6b) Difference between excretion of humans and plants.

Humans: kidneys form urine; skin & lungs assist; precise regulation. Plants: no organs; wastes diffuse, store in vacuoles/bark/leaves (shed); resins/gums exuded; some excreted via roots.

6c) Co-ordination in plants with examples.

Tropic movements: phototropism (shoots to light), gravitropism/hydrotropism (roots), chemotropism (pollen tube). Nastic/growth-irrelevant movements: Mimosa leaf folding, Venus flytrap closure.

7a) What is meant by co-ordination?

Orderly regulation/timing of body processes to achieve effective functioning and homeostasis.

7b) How does excretion occur in human beings?

Nephrons filter blood at glomeruli; tubules reabsorb needed solutes/water; urine formed flows via ureters to bladder and out via urethra.

7c) How is excretion in plants useful to humans?

Wastes like resins, gums, latex are economically valuable (adhesives, medicines, rubber); leaf/bark shedding returns nutrients to soil.

7d) Describe transportation system in plants.

Xylem conducts water/minerals (root pressure + transpiration pull); phloem translocates sugars under pressure-flow from sources to sinks.

• Daily blood filtered by kidneys: \( \approx 190 \text{ L} \) of filtrate → urine \( \approx 1\text{–}1.9 \text{ L} \).
• Osmosis/pressure concept (qualitative): higher solute → lower water potential → water entry \( (\Delta \Psi_w \lt 0) \).
• Guard cell turgor ↑ → stomatal aperture opens; turgor ↓ → closes.