4. New Beginnings: Cities and States​

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Chapter 4: New Beginnings — Cities and States 🏙️🛡️

Grade 7 • Exploring Society: India & Beyond Theme: Tapestry of the Past
“The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns at the frontiers… It should have good roads and waterways… a productive economy with a wide variety of commodities.” — Kauṭilya, Arthaśhāstra
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🧠 The Big Questions

  1. What is meant by the Second Urbanisation of India?
  2. Why were janapadas and mahājanapadas important in early Indian history?
  3. What systems of governance did they evolve?

🕰️ From the First to the Second Urbanisation

  • After ~2000 BCE, India’s First Urbanisation (Indus/Harappan/Sindhu–Sarasvatī) declined: many cities were abandoned or became rural.
  • Urban features faded: grand buildings, markets, specialised crafts, writing, sanitation systems, strong administration and state structures.
  • For nearly a millennium, urban life was minimal in most regions.
  • 1st millennium BCE: a new, vibrant phase of urban growth began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Sindhu basin and nearby regions — this is India’s Second Urbanisation (continuing ever since!).
  • Sources of evidence: Archaeological excavations and rich late Vedic, Buddhist & Jain literature.

🏹 Janapadas & Mahājanapadas

Janapada = “where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)” — a settled territory led by a rājā and advised by assemblies.

  • By the 8th–7th centuries BCE, smaller janapadas merged into larger mahājanapadas.
  • Most lists speak of 16 mahājanapadas, from Gandhāra in the northwest to Aśhmaka in central India and Anga in the east.
  • Why concentrated in the Ganga plains? Fertile agriculture, availability of iron ore in nearby hills, and expanding trade networks.
📜 The “Sixteen” (with some known capitals)
  • Magadha — Rājagṛiha
  • Kosala — Śrāvastī
  • Vatsa — Kauśhāmbī
  • Avanti — Ujjayinī
  • Anga — Champā
  • Vajji/Vṛijji — Vaiśhālī
  • Malla — Kushīnara
  • Chedi — Tripurī
  • Gandhāra — Takṣhaśilā
  • Kamboja — Pushkalavatī
  • Kuru — Indraprastha
  • Pāñchāla — Ahichchhatra
  • Matsya — Virāta
  • Śhūrasena — Mathurā
  • Aśhmaka (Assaka) — (central India, near Godavari)
  • …and smaller janapadas continued too.
Let’s Explore: Find the capitals of Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti on a physical/political map. Which names survive as cities today?

🏰 Capitals, Fortifications & Moats

  • Mahājanapada capitals were large, well-fortified cities with ramparts and a surrounding moat (water-filled ditch) for defense.
  • Gateways were often narrow to control people and goods entering/leaving.
  • Many ancient capitals are still living cities today (often ~2,500 years old!).

⚖️ Early Democratic Traditions & Governance

Assemblies in Janapadas

  • Assemblies like sabhā and samiti (known since Vedic times) advised the rājā; elders likely dominated membership.
  • Some texts say an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly (rare, but revealing).

Two Broad Political Forms among Mahājanapadas

  • Monarchies (e.g., Magadha, Kosala, Avanti): hereditary rājā, ministers, assemblies; collected taxes, built forts, kept armies, waged wars.
  • Gaṇas/Saṅghas (e.g., Vajji/Vṛijji, Malla): assemblies held more power; took decisions by discussion or even vote, including selecting the rājā. Scholars often call them early republics.

🛠️ More Innovations of the Age

1) Iron Metallurgy

  • While copper/bronze dominated the Harappan era, in this phase iron spread widely (techniques known since early 2nd millennium BCE, but became common later).
  • Iron tools boosted agriculture; iron weapons (swords, spears, arrowheads, shields) were lighter and sharper than bronze.
  • Neighbouring mahājanapadas occasionally engaged in warfare and alliances, shaping future kingdoms and empires.

2) The First Coins

  • Growing trade encouraged the first Indian coins: silver punch-marked coins (symbols punched into soft metal).
  • Later, coins of copper and gold too; mahājanapadas minted their own, but coins also circulated across regions and even abroad.
🟩 Compare: First vs Second Urbanisation (fill-style table)
FeatureFirst Urbanisation (Harappan)Second Urbanisation
Centred in the Ganga plains✗✓
Monasteries (Buddhist/Jain)✗✓
Rich Literary Traditions (Vedic/Buddhist/Jain)✗✓
Long-distance Trade✓✓
Warfare among polities✗ (limited evidence)✓
Dominant metals: Copper/Bronze✓✓ (but eclipsed by iron)
Dominant metal: Iron✗✓

🧵 The Varṇa–Jāti System

  • Complex societies organise many groups by function: governance, religion, education, trade, farming, crafts, arts, etc.
  • In India, two overlapping ways of social organisation evolved:

1) Jāti (community by occupation)

  • Profession-based communities (e.g., agriculture, metallurgy, commerce, crafts) with skills handed down generations.
  • Often subdivided into sub-jātis with distinct customs (marriage, rituals, food practices).

2) Varṇa (four broad categories from Vedic texts)

  • Brahmins — learning, ritual; Kshatriyas — defense, warfare;
  • Vaishyas — agriculture/trade/wealth creation; Shudras — artisans, workers, service.
Don’t Miss Out: The English word caste comes from Portuguese casta. Many scholars use it for jāti, some for varṇa, and some for the whole system.
  • Early evidence suggests some flexibility — people could shift professions due to droughts, migrations, opportunity, etc.
  • Over time, the system grew more rigid, creating inequalities, especially toward lower jātis and communities outside the varṇa–jāti fold.
  • Scholars broadly agree: earlier periods were more flexible; rigidity increased later, notably under British rule. Still, varṇa–jāti is only one of many social mechanisms shaping Indian life.
Think About It: Where have you observed social inequalities? Why is equality desirable? What actions reduce inequalities?

🗺️ Developments Elsewhere in India

  • Major routes expanded for trade, pilgrimage and military campaigns:
Uttarapatha
Linked the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India.
Dakṣiṇapatha
From Kauśhāmbī (near Prayagraj) across the Vindhyas to the south.
  • Ports on both coasts flourished; Śhiśhupalgarh (Sisupalgarh, Odisha) shows planned square layout, broad streets, strong fortifications and a water-filled moat.
  • South India (~400 BCE onward): emergence of Cholas, Cheras, Pāṇḍyas. Earliest Tamil literature mentions these kings and kingdoms.
  • South’s rich resources — precious stones, gold, spices — powered vibrant trade within India and overseas.
  • By 300–200 BCE, the Subcontinent was a highly interconnected land; goods, ideas and teachings moved widely. Around this time the mahājanapadas gave way to new political formations.

📈 Second Urbanisation — A Simple Timeline

PeriodWhat was happening?
c. 1900–1200 BCEDecline of Harappan cities; shift to rural lifestyles in many regions.
c. 1200–800 BCERegional cultures; early use of iron in places (gathers momentum later).
c. 800–400 BCERise of janapadas → mahājanapadas; Second Urbanisation; coins; roads; new ideas & faiths.
By c. 300 BCEMahājanapadas fade; new kingdoms/empires reshape India.

📌 Before We Move On — Key Takeaways

  • Janapadas arose in north/central India after the 2nd millennium BCE; rājā advised by assemblies.
  • Mahājanapadas (16 notable ones) powered India’s Second Urbanisation, spreading from the Ganga region across the Subcontinent.
  • Wide roads & routes connected north–south–east–west; people, goods and ideas travelled freely.

📝 Questions & Activities (from the Chapter)

  1. Kauṭilya’s vision: Re-read the quotation at the start. In groups, list what he considers essential for a strong kingdom (forts, roads/waterways, diverse economy, self-sufficiency, etc.). How similar are today’s priorities?
  2. Choosing rulers in early Vedic society: How were rulers chosen and advised? What role did sabhā/samiti play?
  3. Be a historian: Which sources would you use to study mahājanapadas — archaeological (fortifications, coins), literary (Vedic/Buddhist/Jain texts), inscriptions, geography? Explain what each reveals.
  4. Why iron mattered: Explain how iron metallurgy helped agriculture, warfare and urban growth in the 1st millennium BCE. Add your own examples or diagrams.

End of Chapter 4 Notes • Made learner-friendly & mobile-ready 👩‍🎓📱

Chapter 4: New Beginnings — Cities and States — Exercises & Answers

Grade 7 • Exploring Society: India & Beyond Fully solved • Mobile-friendly
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📘 1) Textbook Exercises — Questions & Model Answers

Q1. Consider Kauṭilya’s quotation. What does he recommend for a kingdom? Is it very different today?

He recommends: fortified capitals/frontier towns; self-sufficient, productive land (agriculture, mines, forests, pastures); assured water beyond rainfall; good roads & waterways; and a diverse economy of commodities. Today’s states still value secure borders, infrastructure, water security, diversified economies and disaster resilience—so the core ideas remain strikingly similar.

Q2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?

Early Vedic polities had a rājā advised by assemblies (sabhā, samiti). While kingship often became hereditary later, texts indicate that assemblies could advise, consent, and even (in some narratives) remove an incompetent ruler—showing consultative traditions from an early time.

Q3. As a historian of ancient India, which sources would you use to study the mahājanapadas? How does each help?

  • Archaeology: Excavated fortifications, moats, city plans, workshops, coins—reveal urban planning, defense, crafts, economy.
  • Literature: Late Vedic, Buddhist, Jain texts—name polities, capitals, routes, and institutions (e.g., gaṇa/saṅgha).
  • Inscriptions/Seals/Coin legends: Titles, rulers, symbols, monetised trade and political authority.
  • Geography/Environmental data: Fertility of the Ganga plains, iron sources, river networks—explain why centres arose where they did.

Q4. Why was iron metallurgy important for urban growth in the 1st millennium BCE?

Iron tools expanded agriculture (clearing forests, deeper tilling) → more surplus food; iron weapons and armour improved warfare/defense; iron implements supported construction and crafts. Together these enabled bigger cities, stable polities and Second Urbanisation.

🔤 2) One-Word Answer Questions (10)

  1. The new urban phase after the Harappans: Second Urbanisation
  2. “Where people have set foot/settled” (a territory): Janapada
  3. Larger early states formed by merging janapadas: Mahājanapadas
  4. Magadha’s early capital: Rājagriha
  5. Assembly with greater power in gaṇa/saṅgha states: Saṅgha
  6. First Indian coins with symbols impressed: Punch-marked
  7. Narrow, water-filled defensive ditch: Moat
  8. Famous northwestern centre of learning: Takṣaśilā
  9. Main north Indian trade route linking NW to Ganga plains: Uttarapatha
  10. Southern route from Kauśāmbī across the Vindhyas: Dakṣiṇapatha

🧩 3) Fill in the Blanks (10)

  1. The Indus/Harappan phase is called India’s __________ Urbanisation. First
  2. Many mahājanapada capitals were __________ and protected by moats. fortified
  3. Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti were among the most __________ states. powerful
  4. Assemblies mentioned in Vedic texts include the __________ and the __________. sabhā; samiti
  5. Early coins were mostly of __________ and had symbols punched. silver
  6. Warfare and alliances among mahājanapadas led to new __________ and __________. kingdoms; empires
  7. Iron tools boosted __________ and supported urban growth. agriculture
  8. Śiśupalgarh shows a planned __________ ground plan with broad streets. square
  9. In gaṇa/saṅgha polities like Vajji, some decisions were taken by __________. vote
  10. The social framework combined occupational __________ and the four __________. jātis; varṇas

✅ 4) True or False (10) — with Explanations

1) The First Urbanisation was centred in the Ganga plains.
False — It was the Indus/Harappan (Sindhu–Sarasvatī) civilisation.
2) Most mahājanapada capitals were well-fortified and had moats.
True — Ramparts, narrow gateways, and water-filled moats enhanced defense.
3) In all mahājanapadas, the rājā was always hereditary and absolute.
False — Gaṇa/saṅgha states (e.g., Vajji, Malla) used assemblies and even voting.
4) The earliest widespread Indian coins were gold pieces.
False — The first were mainly silver punch-marked coins.
5) Iron tools helped expand agriculture and crafts during Second Urbanisation.
True — Iron enabled forest clearance, deeper tilling, and stronger tools.
6) The sabhā and samiti appear first in Buddhist texts only.
False — They are mentioned in Vedic literature too.
7) Śiśupalgarh shows evidence of planned streets and strong fortifications.
True — Square layout, gateways, and a surrounding moat are noted.
8) Uttarapatha connected the Ganga plains to south India across the Vindhyas.
False — That’s the Dakṣiṇapatha; Uttarapatha linked NW to the Ganga plains/east.
9) In the early period, some occupational mobility across jātis is evidenced.
True — Texts/inscriptions note shifts due to calamities/opportunities.
10) By about 300 BCE, mahājanapadas ceased and new formations arose.
True — They gave way to larger kingdoms/empires reshaping India.

✍️ 5) Very Short Answers (10) — 2–3 lines each

  1. What is Second Urbanisation?
    A renewed spread of cities from the 1st millennium BCE, centred on the Ganga plains and beyond, marked by iron technology, coinage, routes, and strong states.
  2. Why did the Ganga plains become a hub?
    Fertile soils, ample water and nearby iron sources supported surplus agriculture, population growth, and urban centres.
  3. How did fortifications work?
    Ramparts, narrow gateways and moats slowed enemies and allowed guards to control movement of people and goods.
  4. Monarchy vs gaṇa/saṅgha: one difference?
    Monarchies had hereditary kings; gaṇa/saṅgha assemblies shared power and could select the rājā by discussion/vote.
  5. Why were punch-marked coins important?
    They standardised value, boosted long-distance trade and linked regional markets.
  6. What were Uttarapatha and Dakṣiṇapatha?
    Major overland routes: NW–Ganga plains/east (Uttarapatha) and north India across the Vindhyas to the south (Dakṣiṇapatha).
  7. What is notable about Śiśupalgarh?
    A planned city with a square layout, broad streets, strong fortifications and a water-filled moat.
  8. Was varṇa–jāti always rigid?
    Earlier evidence shows some flexibility; rigidity increased over time, leading to inequalities.
  9. Name the three early southern kingdoms.
    Cholas, Cheras and Pāṇḍyas, famed in early Tamil literature and overseas trade.
  10. Why is Takṣaśilā significant?
    A renowned northwestern centre of learning and a key node on the Uttarapatha.

📝 6) Short Answers (10) — 3–4 lines each

  1. Summarise Kauṭilya’s ideal state features.
    Strong forts for capitals/frontiers; self-sufficient land with farms, forests, pastures and mines; assured water beyond rainfall; robust roads/waterways; and a diversified, productive economy—principles relevant even today.
  2. What evidence proves Second Urbanisation?
    Excavated city sites with fortifications, planned streets and moats; spread of iron tools; punch-marked coins; literary references (Vedic/Buddhist/Jain); and extensive trade routes.
  3. How did iron tools change agriculture?
    They cleared forests, deep-tilled soils and improved implements, raising yields and surpluses needed to support towns and specialists.
  4. Explain punch-marked coins and trade.
    Silver coins with punched symbols circulated across regions, enabling payments, pricing and taxes—knitting together markets and states.
  5. Role of sabhā and samiti.
    These assemblies advised rulers, deliberated public matters and, in some traditions, could even censure/remove an unfit rājā, showing early consultative governance.
  6. Why was Magadha influential?
    Its fertile core, access to resources, strategic rivers/routes, and strong fortifications/armies made it a major power among mahājanapadas.
  7. Compare Uttarapatha and Dakṣiṇapatha.
    Uttarapatha linked the northwest (and beyond) to the Ganga plains/east; Dakṣiṇapatha ran from Kauśāmbī across the Vindhyas into peninsular India—both vital for trade, ideas and armies.
  8. Gaṇa/saṅgha vs monarchy—governance contrast.
    Monarchies centred power in a hereditary king; gaṇa/saṅgha polities vested more authority in assemblies that debated and voted, even choosing the rājā.
  9. Outline the varṇa–jāti framework.
    Varṇa: four broad social roles (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra). Jāti: occupation-based communities transmitting skills; initially more flexible, later more rigid and unequal.
  10. Why did mahājanapadas give way to empires?
    Competition, warfare and alliances, plus growing resources/administration, led to consolidation—larger kingdoms/empires replaced earlier state clusters by ~300 BCE.

End of Exercises • Chapter 4 • New Beginnings: Cities and States • Revise smart & shine! 🌟

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