6. The Age of Reorganisation​

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Chapter 6: The Age of Reorganisation — Detailed Notes

“By continuous living tradition and a vital power of rejuvenescence, this land has readjusted itself through unnumbered transformations.” — J. C. Bose (1917)

Quick Jump: Why ‘Age of Reorganisation’? • Political Map & Methods • Śhungas • Sātavāhanas • Chedis (Kalinga) • South Kingdoms & Sangam • Indo-Greeks & Śhakas • Kuṣhāṇas & Art Schools • Trade & Silk Route • Before We Move On • Glossary • Activities
🗺️ Many Kingdoms ⚔️ Alliances & Wars 🪙 Coins & Numerals 🛕 Rock-cut Caves 🎭 Gandhāra & Mathurā Art 🛣️ Silk Route

What & Why: The ‘Age of Reorganisation’ (c. 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE)

  • After Aśhoka, the Maurya empire fragmented (c. 185 BCE). General Puṣhyamitra Śhunga ended Mauryan rule and founded the Śhunga dynasty.
  • Former Mauryan territories reorganised into multiple big and small kingdoms in the north, Deccan and the south.
  • The north-west weakened, inviting invasions by Indo-Greeks, Śhakas (Indo-Scythians) and later Kuṣhāṇas.
  • Despite conflicts, the age saw a burst of art, architecture, literature, active trade, and deep cultural exchange/assimilation.
Guiding Values often seen in this age: protection of subjects, welfare works, respect for all sects, fair rule of law, and pride in learning, arts & trade.

Political Landscape & Statecraft

  • Competing powers: Śhungas, Sātavāhanas, Chedis (Kalinga), Cheras, Cholas, Pāṇḍyas; external: Indo-Greeks → Śhakas → Kuṣhāṇas.
  • Ways to gain control: ⚭ Matrimonial alliances, ⚔️ warfare, 🏰 border control, 💰 revenue from trade routes.
Matrimonial alliance: political alliance forged through marriage between royal families to cement peace and cooperation.

Śhunga Surge (c. 185–75 BCE)

  • Founded by Puṣhyamitra Śhunga; performed the aśvamedha (horse sacrifice) to assert sovereignty; maintained security against invasions.
  • Culture: revival of Vedic rituals; flourishing of Sanskrit learning; Patañjali (compiler of the Yoga Sūtras) lived in this milieu.
  • Art: Enhancement of Bharhut Stūpa—carved railings, narrative reliefs (Jātakas, symbols like Dharmachakra), early Buddhist art.
Explore: Study a Bharhut panel—notice dress, music/dance scenes, guild activity hints, and symbolism (lotus, wheel, elephants).

Sātavāhanas (Andhras) — Power of the Deccan (2nd c. BCE – 3rd c. CE)

Territory & Capitals

  • Ruled much of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra.
  • Capitals at different times: Amarāvatī & Pratiṣṭhāna (Paithan).

Economy & Trade

  • Krishna-Godavari agriculture provided stability.
  • Coins across west/east coasts; many with ships → advanced maritime trade & shipbuilding.
  • Extensive trade with Roman world (spices, textiles, sandalwood, pearls, ivory; imports of glass, perfumes).
  • Naneghat caves: toll collection & traders’ resting places near major routes.

Society, Faith & Culture

  • Mother-name tradition: e.g., Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi (“son of Gautamī Balaśrī”).
  • Inscriptions show queens performing Vedic rituals (even aśvamedha) and making large donations (dāna).
  • Patronage to Vedic scholars, Buddhist and Jaina establishments.
  • Karla & Pitalkhora caves: grand rock-cut halls; craftspeople (even goldsmiths) credited with stone sculptures.
Indian numerals: Naneghat inscriptions contain early numerals—evidence for the Indian origin of our modern numeral forms.
Think: What might the use of the mother’s name indicate about royal lineage, legitimacy, and the role of queens?

Later fragmentation (3rd c. CE) due to weak central control & economic pressures led to regional powers re-emerging.

Chedis of Kalinga — Kharavela’s Record

  • Kharavela, sometimes styled bhikṣu-rāja (monk-king), patronised Jainism while respecting all sects.
  • Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves (near Bhubaneswar): fine rock-cut architecture, carved panels, monk residences.
  • Hāthīgumphā Inscription: annual chronicle of campaigns and welfare works; claims of forming a council of ascetics and repairing all temples.
Think: How did artisans achieve precise rock-cut chambers with simple tools? What planning would such works need?

South India: Cheras • Cholas • Pāṇḍyas & the Sangam Age

Sangam Literature

  • Assemblies of poets (Sangams) produced the oldest Tamil corpus: refined love poetry and heroic/ethical themes.
  • Provides rich social, economic and political insights about the three crowned kings.

Cholas

  • Karikāla defeated allied Chera–Pāṇḍya forces; famed for public works.
  • Kallaṇai / Grand Anicut on the Kāveri: ancient diversion system feeding the delta—“rice bowl of the South”—still functional.
  • Silappadikāram: epic of Kaṇṇagi & Kovalan; justice, righteous kingship, and journeys across Chola-Pāṇḍya-Chera lands.

Cheras & Pāṇḍyas

  • Cheras (Keralaputras): capital Vanji (Karur); active overseas trade with Romans/West Asia (spices, timber, ivory, pearls); issued emblematic coins.
  • Pāṇḍyas: capital Madurai; renowned for pearls, naval power, vibrant trade; inscriptions stress welfare & religious tolerance.
Explore: Why were pearls such a coveted trade item? Consider rarity, luxury markets and maritime skills.

Indo-Greeks & Śhakas (Indo-Scythians)

  • Post-Alexander satraps evolved into Indo-Greek rulers in the north-west; they blended Greek and Indian elements.
  • Heliodorus Pillar (Vidisha): Indo-Greek ambassador venerates Vāsudeva; cites “three immortal precepts”: self-restraint, charity, consciousness.
  • Indo-Greek coins show kings with Greek deities; some depict Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣṇa or Lakṣmī → cultural assimilation.
  • Later replaced by the Śhakas, whose Śhaka Samvat calendar (starts 78 CE) is still India’s National Calendar (adopted 1957).
Śhaka Samvat & Dates: Typically 78 years behind the Gregorian year (79 years behind from Jan–Mar).

Kuṣhāṇas — Kaniṣhka, Trade & Two Great Art Schools

  • Kuṣhāṇas (from Central Asia) formed a vast empire (2nd c. CE) across N. India and Central Asia; Kaniṣhka styled “mahārāja rājādhirāja devaputra”.
  • Coins depict the emperor and deities like Buddha or Śiva-Nandi → signals royal patronage & inclusive ethos.
  • Controlled segments of the Silk Route → booming inter-regional trade.

Gāndhāra School

  • Region: NW (ancient Gandhāra). Material: grey-black schist.
  • Style: Greco-Roman features + Indian themes; realistic anatomy, flowing robes; famous for serene Buddha/bodhisattva images.

Mathurā School

  • Region: Mathurā (UP). Material: red sandstone.
  • Style: distinctively Indian; fuller figures, smooth modelling; deities like Kubera, Lakṣmī, Śiva, yakṣhas/yakṣhiṇīs, Buddha.
Think: Why would a ruler place multiple faith symbols on currency? How does that communicate policy and legitimacy?

Trade Networks & the Silk Route

  • Indian cities/ports linked to Central Asia, Persia, Mediterranean via the Silk Route; to Rome/West Asia by sea.
  • Exports: spices, textiles, timber, ivory, pearls; Imports: glassware, perfumes, luxury goods; inland tolls (e.g., Naneghat).
  • Trade fed state revenues, patronage of arts, and public works across dynasties.

Before We Move On … (Quick Recap)

  • Post-Maurya era saw many kingdoms and external invasions → political reorganisation.
  • Despite conflicts, arts, literature, and trade flourished; cultural dialogue produced blended styles with Indian themes dominant.
  • Major players: Śhungas, Sātavāhanas, Chedis, Cheras, Cholas, Pāṇḍyas; external: Indo-Greeks, Śhakas, Kuṣhāṇas.
  • Sanskrit & Tamil literatures grew; monumental rock-cut works and stūpa traditions expanded.
🪙 Coins with ships & deities 🛕 Bharhut, Karla, Udayagiri 🎨 Gandhāra ↔ Mathurā 📜 Hāthīgumphā, Naneghat 📖 Sangam & Silappadikāram

Mini-Glossary

Aśvamedha: Vedic horse-sacrifice ritual asserting sovereignty.
Matrimonial alliance: Political alliance via royal marriage.
Rock-cut architecture: Monuments carved into natural rock faces (e.g., caves, halls).
Śhaka Samvat: Indian calendar era starting 78 CE.
Schist: Stone used in Gandhāra sculptures.
Sangam: Tamil poets’ assemblies; classical Tamil literature corpus.

Try These • Learn by Doing

  1. Timeline Draw a band from 200 BCE to 300 CE; place Śhungas, Sātavāhanas, Chedis, Chera-Chola-Pāṇḍya, Indo-Greeks, Śhakas, Kuṣhāṇas and key events.
  2. Compare Make a two-column chart for Gandhāra vs. Mathurā (stone, style, themes, features).
  3. Map Mark Udayagiri-Khandagiri, Naneghat, Karla, Amarāvatī, Karur, Madurai, Kāveripattinam on an outline of India.
  4. Source Read Summarise in 6–8 lines what the Hāthīgumphā and Naneghat inscriptions reveal about rulers, society and economy.

End • Chapter 6 • The Age of Reorganisation • Happy learning! 🌟

Chapter 6: The Age of Reorganisation — Exercises with Answers

Class 7 • Exploring Society: India and Beyond • NCERT-aligned • Font: Comic Sans MS • Mobile-friendly

📝 Textbook Q&A 🔤 One-word 🧩 Fill in the Blanks ✅ True / False ✍️ Very Short 🖊️ Short Answers

1) Exercise: Textbook Questions & Answers

1. Why was the post-Maurya era also known as the era of reorganisation?
After the Mauryan empire broke up (c. 185 BCE), its regions fragmented into several big and small kingdoms. At the same time, invasions in the north-west (Indo-Greeks, Śhakas, later Kuṣhāṇas) and the rise of regional powers (Śhungas, Sātavāhanas, Cheras, Cholas, Pāṇḍyas, Chedis) forced political boundaries, economies and alliances to be reorganised. Despite conflict, arts, trade and cultural exchange flourished—hence the name.
2. Write a note on the Sangam literature in about 150 words.
Sangam literature is the oldest extant corpus of classical Tamil poetry produced by assemblies (Sangams) of poets in south India. It beautifully explores personal emotions—especially love—and social values such as heroism, generosity and righteous conduct. The poems offer vivid insights into society, economy, warfare, maritime trade, and the geography of the Chera, Chola and Pāṇḍya realms. They mention bustling port-towns, pearl fisheries, spice routes, and the etiquette of kingship and warfare. The language is refined, imagery rich, and metre disciplined. Beyond literary merit, Sangam texts are invaluable historical sources that corroborate archaeological evidence for urban growth, far-flung trade networks and the cultural sophistication of early south Indian polities. They also connect with later works like the epic Silappadikāram, extending themes of justice and dharma.
3. Which rulers mentioned in this chapter included their mother’s name in their title, and why?
The Sātavāhanas often prefixed the mother’s name to royal titles—for example, Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi (“son of Gautamī Balaśrī”). This highlighted matrilineal legitimacy, honoured powerful queens, and strengthened claims to the throne when succession was contested. The practice also appears in other Sātavāhana names (e.g., Vāsiṣṭhīputra).
4. Write a 250-word note about one kingdom you find interesting. Explain why you chose it.
The Sātavāhanas (Andhras) ruled much of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE with capitals at Amarāvatī and Pratiṣṭhāna (Paithan). I chose them because they combined agricultural strength with expansive overland and maritime trade, linking India to the Roman world. Their coins, found across the western and eastern coasts—some showing ships—testify to advanced shipbuilding and a thriving seaborne economy. The Krishna–Godavari system fed stable agrarian surplus that supported artisans, monasteries and public works. Inscriptions at Naneghat reveal toll collection and early Indian numerals, while Karla and Pitalkhora caves attest to spectacular rock-cut architecture patronised in their time. Socially, the Sātavāhanas are notable for the mother-name tradition (e.g., Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi), reflecting royal women’s prominence. Epigraphs record queens performing Vedic rituals—including the aśvamedha—and making large donations (dāna) to priests, guests, scholars and monks. The kings supported multiple traditions—Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina—illustrating the Indian ethos of accommodating diverse schools of thought. Their state drew significant revenue from agriculture, customs, and transit dues along crucial passes (like Naneghat) that tied the Deccan to coastal ports. As a result, craft guilds, long-distance trade, and urban centres flourished. Though the empire later fragmented due to weaker central control and economic pressures, the Sātavāhanas left a durable legacy in administration, coinage, rock-cut monuments, and a cosmopolitan economy bridging inland India and the Indian Ocean world.
5. Imagine your own kingdom. What emblem and title would you choose? Describe its values, rules and unique features.
Kingdom: Samagrā (meaning “wholesome/complete”). Title: Rājādhirāja Dharmapāla (“guardian of dharma”). Emblem: A wheel (chakra) flanked by a plough and a ship—signifying justice, agriculture and trade. Values & Rules: (1) Welfare-first governance—granaries, wells, roadside trees, and veterinary care; (2) Freedom of belief—support to all sects; (3) Clean trade—fair weights, tolls reinvested in roads and caravanserais; (4) Education—guild schools and monastic learning hubs; (5) Law—swift, impartial justice with public edict boards. Unique Features: Citizen councils for local works; mother-name recognition in royal titles; yearly “Open Court” audits; and a disaster-relief fund for floods/droughts.
6. Mark important structures on an outline map of India.
Guide list (approximate locations to label):
• Udayagiri–Khandagiri Caves — Bhubaneswar, Odisha • Naneghat — Junnar–Naneghat Pass, Maharashtra • Karla Caves — Lonavala, Maharashtra • Pitalkhora Caves — Aurangabad region, Maharashtra • Amarāvatī Stūpa — Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh • Bharhut Stūpa — Satna region, Madhya Pradesh • Heliodorus Pillar — Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh • Kallaṇai (Grand Anicut) — Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu • Karur (Vanji) — Tamil Nadu • Madurai — Tamil Nadu • Kāveripattinam — Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu.

2) One-Word Answer Questions (10)

  1. Who founded the Śhunga dynasty? Puṣhyamitra Śhunga
  2. Indo-Scythians are also called the ______. Śhakas
  3. Which Indian era begins in 78 CE and is India’s National Calendar? Śhaka Samvat
  4. Name a Sātavāhana ruler who used his mother’s name in his title. Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi
  5. Capital of the Pāṇḍyas. Madurai
  6. River diverted by the Kallaṇai (Grand Anicut). Kāveri
  7. The pillar near Vidisha erected by an Indo-Greek envoy. Heliodorus Pillar
  8. Name one of the two major art schools under the Kuṣhāṇas. Gandhāra / Mathurā
  9. Kuṣhāṇa emperor styled “devaputra”. Kaniṣhka
  10. Language corpus associated with the Sangam Age. Tamil

3) Fill in the Blanks (10)

  1. After the Mauryas, ______ established the Śhunga dynasty. Puṣhyamitra Śhunga
  2. Naneghat caves were used to collect trade ______. tolls / taxes
  3. The Karla caves are located near ______ in Maharashtra. Lonavala
  4. The Heliodorus pillar venerates ______ as “god of gods”. Vāsudeva (Kṛiṣṇa)
  5. The trans-Asian network connecting China to the Mediterranean is the ______. Silk Route
  6. The Chera capital Vanji is identified with present-day ______. Karur
  7. The Kallaṇai/Grand Anicut diverts the waters of the ______ River. Kāveri
  8. Gandhāra sculptures were often carved in grey-black ______ stone. schist
  9. The Śhaka Samvat is generally ______ years behind the Gregorian year (except Jan–Mar). 78
  10. The Hāthīgumphā inscription is engraved in the ______ script. Brāhmī

4) True / False with Explanation (10)

  1. False — The Age of Reorganisation had many kingdoms, not one empire controlling the subcontinent. Post-Mauryan fragmentation led to multiple regional powers.
  2. True — Some Sātavāhana coins depict seafaring ships. Evidence of advanced maritime trade and shipbuilding.
  3. False — Indo-Greeks remained culturally isolated. They assimilated; some coins show Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣṇa or Lakṣmī.
  4. False — Gandhāra art used red sandstone. Red sandstone is typical of Mathurā; Gandhāra used schist.
  5. False — Kharavela favoured only Jainism and suppressed others. He respected all sects and repaired temples widely.
  6. False — Śhaka Samvat is the Roman calendar. It is an Indian era beginning in 78 CE; adopted as National Calendar.
  7. True — Karikāla’s Kallaṇai aided Kāveri delta irrigation. It still benefits agriculture—“rice bowl of the South”.
  8. True — Naneghat inscriptions show early Indian numerals. They support the Indian origin of our numeral forms.
  9. False — Bharhut Stūpa was entirely built by the Śhungas. It likely began in Aśhoka’s time; Śhungas added railings/reliefs.
  10. False — Kuṣhāṇa coins depict only Buddha. They also show Śiva with Nandi and many other deities.

5) Very Short Answer Questions (10) — 2–3 lines each

  1. Why is this period called ‘reorganisation’? Fragmentation after the Mauryas created many competing kingdoms. Borders, alliances, economies and institutions were reshaped amid invasions and regional ascents.
  2. Two methods rulers used to expand. Matrimonial alliances to cement peace and legitimacy; and warfare to control borderlands, routes and resources.
  3. What does the Heliodorus pillar show? An Indo-Greek ambassador venerated Vāsudeva and praised ethical precepts—evidence of cultural assimilation and shared values.
  4. Role of trade in Sātavāhana power. Maritime and inland trade (tolls at Naneghat, ship coins) boosted revenues, sustained cities, and connected the Deccan to the Indian Ocean and Roman markets.
  5. Significance of Naneghat. A key mountain pass with cave inscriptions about tolls, donations, and early numerals—showing state finance, ritual life and writing.
  6. Gandhāra vs Mathurā (one key difference). Gandhāra used schist with Greco-Roman realism; Mathurā used red sandstone with distinctively Indian modelling.
  7. Who was Kaniṣhka? A powerful Kuṣhāṇa emperor (styled “devaputra”) who patronised arts, issued syncretic coins, and benefited from Silk Route trade.
  8. What is Sangam literature? Classical Tamil poetry by assemblies of poets, rich in love/heroic themes; a major historical source for early south India.
  9. What did the Hāthīgumphā inscription record? Kharavela’s year-wise campaigns and welfare works; his respect for all sects; and civic initiatives—inscribed in Brāhmī.
  10. Why were pearls important for Pāṇḍyas? They were luxury exports tied to maritime skill and coastal ecology, bringing wealth and prestige to Madurai’s economy.

6) Short Answer Questions (10) — 3–4 lines each

  1. Śhunga contributions to art and learning. The Śhungas oversaw a Sanskritic revival and supported learning (Patañjali). At Bharhut they added ornate railings and narrative panels, among the earliest Buddhist reliefs, blending religious themes with lively social scenes.
  2. Mother-name tradition and its significance. Sātavāhana princes prefixed their mother’s name (e.g., Gautamīputra). It affirmed legitimacy via powerful queen-mothers, stabilised succession, and acknowledged the political influence of royal women.
  3. Maritime trade under the Sātavāhanas—evidence. Coin motifs with ships, distribution of coins along both coasts, Roman imports (glass, perfumes), and passes like Naneghat for tolls point to organised sea commerce feeding state revenue.
  4. Kharavela’s religious policy and public works. Though a Jain devotee, Kharavela styled himself a protector of all sects, repaired temples, and sponsored civic projects; Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves exemplify patronage of monk communities and rock-cut skill.
  5. Chera vs Chola economic strengths. Cheras excelled in overseas trade (spices, timber, ivory) with Roman/West Asian links; Cholas (early phase) leveraged Kāveri irrigation—especially the Kallaṇai—to expand agriculture and delta prosperity.
  6. Indo-Greek cultural assimilation—examples. Heliodorus pillar venerating Vāsudeva, coins featuring Indian deities alongside Greek legends, and bilingual practices show blending of religious symbols and governance idioms.
  7. Śhaka Samvat and modern use. An Indian era beginning 78 CE, about 78 years behind the Gregorian year (79 for Jan–Mar). Adopted as India’s National Calendar in 1957; used in official publications today.
  8. Gandhāra vs Mathurā—differences and shared themes. Gandhāra: schist, Greco-Roman realism; Mathurā: red sandstone, Indian modelling. Both sculpted Buddhist and Hindu themes, humanising deities and refining iconography for later temple art.
  9. Benefits of Silk Route control to the Kuṣhāṇas. Tolls and merchant protection increased revenue; luxury exchanges (silk, gems) enriched cities; cosmopolitan culture flourished; and coinage broadcast royal power across regions.
  10. How culture thrived despite political fragmentation. Competing courts sought prestige via patronage—funding poets, monasteries, guilds and monuments. Trade networks linked regions, spreading styles and ideas; tolerance toward multiple sects enabled shared artistic vocabularies.

End • Chapter 6 • Exercises with Answers • Happy learning! 🌟

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